What is Transcendentalism?

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Transcendentalism is a literary, philosophical, religious, and political movement during the early 19th century in the New England region of the United States. It was a response to the Enlightenment’s overemphasis of reason, the dehumanization caused by industrialization, and the growing spiritual crisis.

Transcendentalists such as Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862), and Margaret Fuller (1810-1850) sought to explore the spiritual aspects of life, so that, in the words of Emerson, they may rediscover their “original relation to the universe.” They emphasized the imagination and emotion over reason, intuition over science, the innate goodness of humanity, and nature.

Influenced by Hume and biblical critics such as Schleiermacher and von Herder, transcendentalists were skeptic towards religion, and instead celebrated nature as the source of moral and spiritual enlightenment.

Influences

In addition to Hume’s skepticism and biblical criticism, transcendentalism was also influenced by German idealism—particularly by Kant’s transcendental idealism—and by British Romanticism.

Ralph Waldo Emerson, who is considered as the father of transcendentalism, may have been influenced by Kant’s philosophy through Frederick Henry Hedge (1805-1890), a Unitarian minister who had studied in Germany, and with whom Emerson founded the Transcendental Club. He along with many transcendentalists, however, were not as interested in Kant’s philosophy as to the sentiment behind his words. Following the German philosopher, they celebrated the rightness of moral action, the beauty of the world, and the majesty of God.

As for British Romanticism, Emerson was a great admirer of William Wordsworth (1770-1850) and Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), both of whom he met when he traveled to Europe in 1832. Like Kant, the British romantics shared the same love of morality, beauty, and God; they longed for perfection and were disappointed with the limitations of the world.

Key Concepts

1. The Primacy of Intuition

Transcendentalists saw intuition as more important than reason. They argued that logic and sense experience were limited only to the material world, while intuition could reveal truths beyond it. This is because a person’s intuition can connect with what they called the “Over-Soul,” or that unifying spiritual force that connects all beings and is the source of wisdom and spiritual truths.

2. The Innate Goodness of Humanity

Transcendentalist believed in the inherent goodness of individuals. They held that people are at their best when they are truly self-reliant and independent. They warned about society and its institutions—especially organized religion and political parties—arguing that these can corrupt a person’s goodness. To practice self-reliance, they encouraged people to trust their own instincts and judgments rather than conforming to society’s expectations. Despite such emphasis on individualism, however, they believed that all human beings are one by virtue of the Over-Soul, which transcends individual differences and connects all beings.

3. The Divinity of Nature

Transcendentalists believed that nature was not merely a physical environment, but a manifestation of the divine or the Over-Soul. They saw it as a source of spiritual enlightenment, a refuge from the corrupting influences of society, a place where individuals could connect with their true selves, higher truths, and the divine.

“In the woods, we return to reason and faith. There I feel that nothing can befall me in life, – no disgrace, no calamity… which nature cannot repair. Standing on the bare ground… all mean egotism vanishes. I become a transparent eye-ball; I am nothing; I see all… I am part or particle of God.”
(Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nature)

Criticisms

Despite its influence on American cultural and social movements, literature and philosophy, transcendentalism has also received some criticisms. 

Early in the movement's history, the term "transcendentalists" was used as a pejorative term by critics, who were suggesting that their position was beyond sanity and reason. Some saw transcendentalism as an impractical and elitist philosophy that ignored social and economic inequality; while others saw it as a form of escapism that failed to engage with real-world problems.

References

Brodrick, Michael. “American Transcendentalism.” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Accessed February 24, 2025. https://iep.utm.edu/am-trans/.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Ralph Waldo Emerson (The Oxford Authors). Edited by Richard Poirier. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.

Goodman, Russell. “Transcendentalism.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Last modified September 12, 2023. Accessed February 24, 2025. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/transcendentalism/.

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